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# Modeling Concurrent Processes: Homework Exercises

Module by: John Greiner, Ian Barland, Moshe Vardi. E-mail the authors

The Dining Philosophers Problem is a standard example of concurrent programming. The idea is that a group of nn philosophers sit at a single round table for dinner. There are nn forks, one placed between each plate. To successfully eat each bite, a philosopher needs both of the adjacent forks. Thus, as one consequence, two adjacent philosophers cannot eat at the same time, since they cannot both have the fork inbetween them at the same time. The question is what strategies can the philosophers have such that, each philosopher eventually eats. Typically, but not necessarily, we also require that each philosopher has the same strategy.

## Exercise 1

To keep the problem small, let's assume we have three philosophers. As a slight simplication of some of the following problems, we'll ignore maxims about code reuse, and choose to use separate procedures for each philsopher's strategy.

1. Here is one attempted solution. Repeatedly, each philosopher tries to pick up the left fork, then tries to pick up the right fork, and then eats and drops the forks. A problem with this solution is that it has a race condition -- two philosophers can have the same fork at the same time.
1. Run this code in SPIN. Provide some output from a sample run.
2. Add appropriate assert statements to the code to test for a race condition. If necessary, you may add other code to keep track of information to use in these assertions.
3. Use SPIN to find a shortest trace illustrating a race condition.
2. Here is another attempted solution. It uses the same strategy, except that each fork has a lock. A problem with this solution is that it can deadlock.
1. Use SPIN to show that the previous race conditions cannot happen.
2. Use SPIN to find a shortest trace illustrating deadlock.
3. Recode this version so it uses multiple copies of only a single proctype.
3. Informally, deadlock is often viewed in the more restrictive sense of deadlocking on the acquisition of locks. This is equivalent to considering the case where the only guard conditions are those testing boolean locks. In this sense, deadlock can only happen where there are at least two locks involved. The following problems are instances of two general strategies for avoiding this: using fewer locks or being careful with locks. In the following, code reuse will not matter -- you may write code using either a single or multiple proctypes. ¶ One attempt is to only have a lock for only every other fork. The idea is that each philosopher only needs to grab one lock.
1. Modify the code to do this with an even number of philosophers and forks, say four of each.
2. Does this code have the race condition or deadlock? Use SPIN to determine this. If no, show SPIN's successful output. If yes, find a shortest trace illustrating the problem.
4. A well-known solution is to number the forks somehow and ensure that locks are always obtained in numerical order (instead of always left-then-right). Note: Maintain the provided lock-based code's lock convention of first-acquired last-released.
1. Modify the code to do this.
2. Use SPIN to show that this does not have race conditions or deadlock.
3. Use SPIN to determine whether using a first-acquired first-released protocol has race conditions or deadlock.
5. Assume that philosophers always try to pick up both forks, eat, and then drop both forks, all philsophers use the same strategy, but we have not chosen a particular strategy yet. If we assume weak fairness is enforced and deadlock is avoided, does each philosopher eat repeatedly? What if we assume strong fairness?

### Solution

1. You should add assertions to each philosopher, immediately before or after the printf. They assert that the two forks are being held by that philosopher.
2. The key to recoding is to use _pid, so that each process (philosopher) knows its number. Since process numbers start with 0, not 1, you can either use _pid+1, or renumber the philosophers 0…2. Then, replace the type="inline">mtype with a simple numerical encoding. To compute the appropriate right_fork value, use the modulo operator (%).
3. If any fork lacks a lock, race conditions are possible.
4. Using a FIFO acquisition and release protocol does not change correctness. With left-then-right acquisition, the problem can still deadlock, while with a numerical acquisition, it doesn't. After all, the deadlock is a result of the acquisition strategy, not the release strategy.
5. Weak fairness is conditional on processes being continuously enabled. But here, when one philosopher grabs a fork, the adjacent philosopher sharing that fork is no longer enabled. So with three philosophers, one philosopher eating repeatedly is weakly fair. Similarly, with four philosophers, two of them sitting opposite who are eating repeatedly is weakly fair. ¶ Strong fairness is conditional on processes being enabled infinitely often. It also does not imply that each philosopher gets to eat. For example, consider four philosophers 1…4 and four forks A…D. After starting with 2 grabs A, 2 grabs B, they can cycle through the following actions: 4 grabs C, 2 drops B, 4 grabs D, 2 drops A, 4 drops D, 2 grabs A, 4 drops C, 2 grabs B. The other two philosophers are never enabled, and thus it is strongly fair for them not to eat.

## Exercise 2

In the following, consider an arbitrary number of philosophers. Three philosophers is only a special case.

1. Assume we number the forks, and each philosopher picks up forks in numerical order. Because the table is round, this implies that if most philosophers pick up the left fork first, that one will instead pick up the right fork first. This is a well-known strategy for avoiding deadlock. Is that strategy weakly fair? Strongly fair?
2. Consider the strategy of acquiring forks in numerical order and releasing them in the opposite order. Compare its behavior in SPIN's simulation mode with SPIN's built-in weak fairness enforcement turned off vs. on.

### Solution

1. That particular strategy is neither weakly nor strongly fair, in general. (It is weakly fair when there are only 2 or 3 philosophers.) For example, it allows for one philosopher to repeatedly grabs and drop forks, while the others do nothing.

## Exercise 3

The following is an example of the distinction between deadlock and livelock. Consider two people walking in a hallway towards each other. The hallway is wide enough for two people to pass. Of interest is what happens when the two people meet in the hall. When meeting on the same (left/right) side of the corridor, a polite strategy is to step to the other side of the hallway. A more belligerent strategy is to wait for the other person to move. With two polite people there is the possibility of livelock, while with two belligerent people there is the possibility of deadlock. (As an aside, note that one polite and one belligerent person together in a hall don't have any problems.)

1. Model the livelock problem in Promela. Use SPIN to demonstrate that your Promela program in fact models the problem.
2. Model the deadlock problem in Promela. Use SPIN to demonstrate that your Promela program in fact models the problem.

### Solution

A key to modeling the problem is to abstract away the unnecessary details. In particular, there is no need to model the people walking down the hall, as nothing interesting happens then. Similarly, the hallway can be modeled as being only wide enough for two people to pass. By these restrictions, we reduce the data to only four possibilities: each of the two people can be on either of two sides of the hall. Keeping the state space small allows SPIN to solve more problems, solve them faster, and report traces that are more succinct and, thus, easier to understand.

The following is one of the many ways to code this.


/* Code assumes these two values add to two. */
#define NUM_BELLIGERENT 2
#define NUM_POLITE      0

/* Indicates position of two people.
* Values: 0 or 1, for two sides of hall.
*         2 means unitilized.
*/
int position[2] = 2;

active [NUM_BELLIGERENT] proctype belligerent()
{
/* Non-deterministically set up starting position. */
if
:: true -> position[_pid] = 0;
:: true -> position[_pid] = 1;
fi;

/* Wait for other person to initialize. */
position[1 - _pid] != 2;

do
:: position[1 - _pid] == position[_pid] ->
/* Wait for other person to move. */
skip;
:: else ->
/* Success. */
break;
od;
}

active [NUM_POLITE] proctype polite()
{
/* Non-deterministically set up starting position. */
if
:: true -> position[_pid] = 0;
:: true -> position[_pid] = 1;
fi;

/* Wait for other person to initialize. */
position[1 - _pid] != 2;

do
:: position[1 - _pid] == position[_pid] ->
/* Move to other side. */
position[_pid] = 1 - position[_pid];
:: else ->
/* Success. */
break;
od;
}


## Exercise 4

The process scheduler in an operating system is a typical example of where we are concerned with fairness. If we have multiple processes running on a single processor, we break time into finitely-long intervals during which we execute one of the processes. We'd like to ensure that each process gets a fair'' share of the CPU time.

Your model should have an OS'' process (the scheduler) and multiple user'' processes, using this framework. The user processes are non-terminating — they always want to get the CPU's next time slice. I.e., the user processes will be continually enabled from the perspective of your own scheduler, although not from that of SPIN. But, we aren't modeling the user computation, those processes just print a message. Your scheduler, which is also non-terminating, somehow picks among the processes which will execute.

1. Write a scheduler which does not exhibit weak fairness. I.e., it is possible for one process not to make progress. However, do not write a trivial scheduler that simply always picks one process and never the other.
2. Use SPIN to verify that your scheduler doesn't allow deadlock.
3. Use SPIN to demonstrate that your scheduler does not exhibit weak fairness.
1. Write a scheduler which does exhibit weak fairness, i.e., that each process is guaranteed to make progress. Do not use SPIN's built-in weak fairness enforcement, rather your scheduling algorithm must somehow enforce that condition.
2. Consider if we added a progress label to the user proctype, inside its loop. Why is this insufficient for SPIN to verify the weak fairness?
3. Describe how we could modify the program to verify the weak fairness. You do not need to implement this. Use only the features of Promela/Spin we've covered so far. (Soon, we'll introduce new features that allow a simpler and better approach.)

### Solution

1. The simplest such scheduler is one that non-deterministically chooses which process is scheduled next.
2. The simplest such scheduler just alternates between the two processes. ¶ Adding a progress label to, say, only process A allows SPIN to verify that A makes progress. But that says nothing about B making progress. Adding a progress label to both A and B allows SPIN to verify that at least one of A and B makes progress, both not necessarily both. ¶ With what we've seen, here's two possible ways to use SPIN to convince ourselves that the code is weakly fair.
• Add a progress label to only process A. SPIN verifies that A must gets turns. Then add a progress label to only process B. SPIN verifies that B must get turns. Thus, both A and B must get turns. ¶ Unfortunately, this requires two separate verifications. Also, editing the code inbetween the verifications is error-prone, as it is easy to forget to delete the first progress label.
• Add code, probably to the scheduler, that keeps track of the scheduling choices. Add logic and assertions to check if this behavior is correct. ¶ It is easy to check, for example, that the processes are indeed strictly alternated. Or, more flexibly, that after 100 scheduling choices, both processes were scheduled at least once. But, it is tricky to capture the idea that each will eventually get scheduled. ¶ Adding substantial code for verification is always undesirable because we must separately reason that this additional code is correct and doesn't interfere with the original behavior.

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