The National Center for Education Statistics has reported that currently 3.2 million teachers are employed in the U.S. public school system (NCES, 2008). Within 8 years, it is estimated that 2.8 million teachers will need to be hired in order to address an increase in student populations and to replace those who are retiring (Howard, 2003). Of these needed teachers, approximately 15% (345,000) will be demanded in central cities and in schools with large concentrations of low-income students (Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2002). Although the supply of teachers throughout the 1990s has increased and the number entering the pool of new teachers each year has been adequate to meet the demands of the nation’s school districts, rates of retirement and teacher attrition seriously contribute to the frustration of maintaining a highly qualified teaching staff for every school in the country (Walker, 2003).

With degree in hand, and ink nearly dry on their first contract, new teachers enter the educational field ready to change students’ lives. Filled with hopes, ideas, and excitement, they file into classrooms and begin classroom preparations for their first year. More often than not, novice educators appear to be easily and quickly overwhelmed by the tasks of teaching and often frustrated by unsuccessful attempts to understand the workings of a school’s formal and informal culture. And their attempts to build relationships with key school leaders are often thwarted (Angelle, 2006; Brock & Grady, 1998, 2007; McCann, Johannessen & Ricca, 2005; Melton, 2007).

Recent scholarship has pinpointed the influence of school leaders’ instructional supervision for beginning teachers’ growth and development (Alexander, 2007; Jackson, 2008; Peltier-Glaze, 2005; Protheroe, 2006; Tillman, 2005; Wood, 2005). Without adequate professional support, many new teachers look to other P-12 schools or differing careers for employment at the end of their first year of teaching, thus leaving school systems with vacancies to fill (Cheng & Cheung, 2004; Fedricks, 2001; Johnson & Birkeland, 2003). The National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (2007) has reported that 30% of novice teachers resign within their first 3 years. This attrition rate increased to 50% at the end of 5 years when teacher turnover rates were assessed for novice teachers in high-need, urban public school districts (Barnes, Crowe, & Schaefer, 2007). Teacher turnover costs school districts across the nation approximately seven billion dollars annually (Wallis, Healy, Hylton, & Klarreich, 2008).

The pace at which novice teachers adapt and develop and the choice either to stay or leave the profession appear to be related to a principal’s involvement with beginning teachers (Colley, 2002; Peltier-Glaze, 2005). School leaders are the curators of education and the stewards of the learning environment. Principals are responsible for facilitating the transition of individuals from a university program or a business career into the educational setting. Throughout this process, principals are expected to identify novice teachers’ strengths and areas for improvement and provide a plethora of support to address those needs (Melton, 2007; Peltier-Glaze, 2005; Protheroe, 2006). Findings from a study conducted by Jackson (2008) reiterated that the principal “played five key roles in helping to retain teachers: (a) caring listener, (b) supportive advocate, (c) respectful colleague, (d) open-minded team player, and (e) enthusiastic facilitator” (p. 112). While simultaneously managing a school community and meeting the demands and concerns of novice teachers, principals are called to embody and exude the characteristics and attributes of effective leadership. What characteristics of a school leader define “quality” for a new teacher? What leadership knowledge and skills can most effectively facilitate beginning teachers’ professional growth and development? The purpose of this study was to explore school leaders’ interactions that were identified in the existing scholarship as influences for facilitating, or hindering, beginning teacher success. The research questions driving this study were, How do novice teachers experience interactions with principals? and How do these reported interactions appear to influence beginning teachers’ success from the lived experience of the new teacher?

To understand the needs of novice teachers and the actions required of principals, a review of the professional and popular literature was warranted. Literature resources were retrieved from a variety of sources, including educational journals, professional journals, books, conference speeches, and doctoral dissertations. Internet databases were used to further the literature search using ProQuest, Educational Resources Informational Center (ERIC), and the OhioLink at The Ohio State University. The literature review revealed four themes: relationships, expectation, perceptions, and teacher development. Each theme was related to specific principals’ actions that positively, or in some instances negatively, influenced novice teachers’ professional growth and development.

Identified as the first theme, studies noted that principals must cultivate a positive relationship with the teaching staff (Fedricks, 2001; Johnson & Birkeland, 2003). To build rapport, principals should be readily available to guide and advise and empower teachers by modeling acceptance and praise (Angelle, 2006; Renwick, 2007; Richards, 2004; Ruder, 2005). Support can be afforded to teachers through direct classroom interaction by observation, class visits, formal and informal reviews, and reflective feedback in instructional effectiveness (Angelle, 2006). The assignment of a doable teaching load and recognition of new teachers’ successes are essential ingredients that can positively propel a new teacher’s sense of confidence (Davis & Bloom, 1998; Menchaca, 2003; Walsdorf & Lynn, 2002; Weasmer & Woods, 1998).

Principal support can be established by taking time and displaying concern for teacher needs. Johnson and Birkeland (2003) reported that new teachers regularly requested a transfer from a school because a principal was often aloof or inaccessible at times when a new teacher expressed anxiety or distress. Principals must be actively present and available to assist with the needs and concerns of novice teachers, as well as build relationships and trust with them, using communication skills that reflect a noncombative, open style where questions and concerns are welcomed (Bodycott, Walker, & Lee Chi Kin, 2001; Kardos, Johnson, Peske, Kauffman, & Liu, 2001; Melton, 2007; Nicklaus & Ebmeier, 1999). According to Mauer and Zimmerman (2000), novice teachers progress through an array of emotions, beginning with anticipation and moving through four phases known as survival, disillusionment, rejuvenation, and reflection. By modeling advocacy and empathy, principals assist teachers in navigating this process and simultaneously keep a focus on student success.

Finally, principals can show support by encouraging novice teachers to ask questions and find ways to celebrate individual success. Principals must reinforce the concept that the asking of questions increases the teacher’s competence, and should not be viewed as a sign of weakness. Engagement in dialogue is necessary for teacher growth (Brock & Grady, 2007; Melton, 2007). This provides the principal an opportunity to encourage, reinforce, and praise novice teachers (Protheroe, 2006; Spinella, 2003).

‘Highly effective’ building leaders are responsible for promoting and maintaining a positive school culture and assisting novice teachers to adapt to, and become active participants in, the school’s culture (Angelle, 2006; Johnson & Kardos, 2002; Watkins, 2005; Wood, 2005). Principals must assist novice teachers in the understanding of and integration into the environment in which they work. By doing so, the novice teachers become aware of the dynamics of the school culture and identify their ability to function as members of a community (McKerrow, 1996; Walsdorf & Lynn, 2002).

Although a new teacher’s understanding of the dynamics and influences of a school’s culture is essential, it is equally important to cultivate peer relationships between novice and experienced teachers. A collegial environment promotes collaborative interaction with coaches, mentors, and grade-level teachers (Davis & Bloom, 1998). Providing a culture of learning and development allows for the continued growth of novice teachers through the interaction with experienced teachers (Youngs, 2007a).

A second theme that emerged from the literature centers on principal expectation (Quinn & Andrews, 2004; Watkins, 2005; Wong, 2004). Novice teachers need to understand their roles and responsibilities, as well as their position in the school organization in order to be effective instructors. ‘Highly effective’ principals are accountable for disseminating expectation information in an efficient manner to increase novice teacher effectiveness (Melton, 2007). Novice teachers must know what is expected of them in terms of classroom management, student discipline, documentation of student progress, and the implementation of curriculum and instructional strategies (Brock & Grady, 2007; McKerrow, 1996; Smith, Morrow, & Gray, 1999).

Whether dissemination of the duties and responsibilities are more effective through formal orientation (DePaul, 2005; Protheroe, 2006; Smith, Morrow, & Gray, 1999) or need a more personalized environment (McCann, Johannessen, & Ricca, 2005), the conversation must be meaningful, clear, and informative to avoid any misunderstandings or misconceptions. When novice teachers have a clear understanding of what is expected of them and work in a school environment that reiterates those expectations continuously, they are more likely to increase their loyalty and take ownership in their specific school (Angelle, 2006; Davis & Bloom, 1998; Melton, 2007). If novice teachers are not able to fully understand the roles and responsibilities that their principals expect them to fulfill, it may lead to increased frustration. That frustration can easily lead to dissatisfaction and, ultimately, teacher turnover (Johnson and Birkeland, 2003).

Combined with role definition, ‘highly effective’ principals should provide adequate resources to assist novice teachers’ success in the classroom (Brendle-Corum & Haynes, 2004; McCann et al., 2005; Quinn & Andrews, 2004). Novice teachers need access to the resources that facilitate their success in teaching. Effective leaders make certain that novice teachers have equitable access to the resources needed for them to bring purposeful instruction to students. Resources include understanding curriculum standards, having adequate supplies and materials, having easy access to data, and understanding the procedures and policies of the school (Brendle-Corum & Haynes, 2004; Davis & Bloom, 1998; Quinn & Andrews, 2004).

A third theme highlighted perceptions held by both the principal and teacher (Bodycott et al., 2001; Melton, 2007). Effectual principals hold realistic views about novice teachers’ employment performance and provide services that assist new teachers to develop and sustain skills for successful classroom instruction (Cheng & Cheung, 2004; Davis & Bloom, 1998). Principals should recognize the importance of perception when dealing with new teacher success. They must also enter into a new relationship with a novice teacher with a positive attitude and a sense of perceived success for the teacher. Encouragement and empowerment has a positive effect on teacher self-perception (Melton, 2007). Cheng and Cheung (2004) found that novice teachers felt more successful in the classroom when their self-perception and that of their administrators were aligned. Research has supported the notion that novice teachers felt more accepted by their colleagues when it was perceived that they were initially accepted by their principal (Jackson, 2008; Quinn & Andrews, 2004).

Novice teachers are encouraged to suspend negative or biased perceptions that may have been acquired through previous experiences with administrators and allow an effectual principal opportunities to provide a positive environment conducive to new teacher professional development (Bodycott et al., 2001). New teachers can enter school systems with preconceived perceptions of administrators that are shaped by their previous experiences either as a student or parent of a student. Sometimes, a new teacher espouses an established set of criteria that identifies the characteristics of an effective and ineffective administrator (Bodycott et al., 2001). Successful principals recognize these perceptions and reinforce the characteristics that provide effective leadership for novice teachers (Melton, 2007).

A fourth theme from the literature illuminated teacher development opportunities that promote novice teacher success as an important characteristic of a school leader. Effective principals implement meaningful mentoring programs that promote positive collegial interaction and support. This includes pairing novice teachers with trained, experienced mentors, while providing them time to meet and discuss their development (Brock & Grady, 1997, 1998; Johnson & Kardos, 2002, 2005; McCann et al., 2005; Melton, 2007; Quinn & Andrews, 2004; Ruder, 2005; Stansbury, 2001). Research has shown that 60% of principals feel that a mentoring program is one of the most influential resources for new teachers (Brock & Grady, 1998, 2007). A strong teacher mentoring program also facilitates the sharing of information to the novice teachers about both the professional work of a teacher and the daily job of classroom teaching to assist them in being adequately prepared and engaged in the educational process (Renwick, 2007; Wayne, Youngs, & Fleischman, 2005; Wong, 2004).

In order to increase the likelihood of teacher satisfaction and retention, experienced mentors should be proficient in collaboration and communication skills, respect teacher differences and ways of work, and model appropriate classroom management and curriculum implementation (Davis & Bloom, 1998; Feiman-Nemser, 2003; Mason, 2003; Menchaca, 2003). Matching experienced mentors with novice teachers in an environment where they can work together in a shared planning period, and/or work in the same grade level or subject area, increases novice teacher success (Johnson & Kardos, 2005; Wood, 2005; Youngs, 2007a; Youngs, 2007b).

A second aspect in the teacher development process that effectual principals provide is comprehensive professional development opportunities for their novice teachers (Ganser, 2002; Johnson & Kardos, 2005; Neu & Hale, 2000). ‘Highly effective’ principals select a strong instructional development program that addresses classroom management skills, curriculum implementation strategies, lesson planning, modeling of skilled teaching, and creation of higher order teaching strategies (Black, 2004; DePaul, 2005; Jarchow, 1991; Johnson & Kardos, 2002). Respecting their individual needs, as well as the necessity for school improvement, successful principals provide novice teachers with the training and resources necessary for their personal and professional growth.

Professional development must be personalized to address the specific needs of the novice teacher. The principal should offer flexible opportunities for new teachers to experience professional training (Davis & Bloom, 1998; Menchaca, 2003; Walsdorf & Lynn, 2002; Wildman, Niles, Magliaro, & McLaughlin, 1989; Youngs, 2007a). Novice teachers tend to need additional knowledge and support in the areas of classroom management, lesson planning, comprehension of curriculum, school policies and procedures, and effective communication skills with students, parents, and fellow teachers (Amoroso, 2005; Brock & Grady, 1998, 2007; Renwick, 2007). Addressing these needs allows the novice teacher to gain more knowledge and insight into what is necessary for increasing student achievement in the classroom setting. As principals monitor teacher performance, they are able to modify professional development in order to increase teacher effectiveness.

Finally, a professional development plan is not complete until some significant amount of time is spent on assisting novice teachers in assessing data pertinent to student achievement. Student success is a distinctive indicator used to assess teacher success. Principals must establish a process that trains teachers on data analysis, progress monitoring, and using data to create plans of action for struggling and higher achieving students (Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement, 2007; Watkins, 2005; Wong, 2004). Effectual principals create this environment and facilitate its functioning at levels appropriate for both the novice teacher and the school as a whole.

The results of the literature review identified multiple processes by which ‘highly effective’ administrators create and maintain an environment that assists novice teachers in discovering their place in the school community while cultivating the talents and skills necessary to becoming a master teacher (see Figure 1 below).

In an effort to explore if novice teachers identified characteristics associated with the themes of relationships, expectation, perceptions, and teacher development, a case study was selected. The purpose of this study was to assess if feedback from the novice teachers confirmed or contradicted these themes and actions as important determinants of how school leaders can shape both the quality and quantity of novice teacher success.

The research questions driving this study were, first, how do novice teachers experience interactions with principals? And, second, how do these reported interactions appear to influence beginning teachers’ success? The purpose was to corroborate or refute recent findings in the professional and popular (nonscholarly) literature that ‘highly effective’ leadership seems to be situated in the aforementioned four themes. Following a phenomenological approach to qualitative interpretation, the heuristic case study sought to discover new meaning and/or emerging trends, as well as to confirm, or disconfirm, the four themes that had emerged through the review of the literature (Merriam, 1998). To explore the interactions between principals and beginning teachers, an open-ended question pilot survey was administered to a purposefully selected group of novice teachers. The convenience sample consisted of 24 participants, 7 elementary, 12 middle, and 5 high school teachers who were participating in a Peer Assistance Review (PAR) program for new teachers in a large urban context in Ohio. The survey was distributed to the study’s participants during the final class session in the course Strategies for Successful Thinking in an Urban Context.

The participants were asked to identify three actions that their principal had taken to assist the novice teacher in attaining success during the school year. Participants were also asked to identify three actions that they wished their principal would have taken to enhance the first year experience. The participants were not given preconceived categories that reflected the current themes, as this may have limited or influenced the responses. After collection, the data were categorized by the four themes.

A literature review analyzed the relationship between school leaders and novice teachers. The result was four recurring themes: relationships, expectation, perceptions, and teacher development. As previously stated, participants’ survey responses were assigned to categories in each of the four themes that had emerged from the review of literature. The data were also disaggregated by level of teaching and grouped into three categories: elementary school teachers, middle school teachers, and high school teachers.

Data analyses revealed that the majority of participants’ responses were categorized within the theme relationship. Specifically, the participants identified positive support from their principals as a critical determinant for “a good school year.” The remaining responses emerged under the theme expectation. Some participants noted that principals ensured a new teacher had adequate resources and supplies to aid instruction. These findings affirm other studies’ assertions that new teachers who had regular guidance and classroom feedback, more appropriate and manageable working assignments, sufficient teaching resources, and a stable and orderly school environment reported significant levels of satisfaction and success during their first year of teaching (Brendle-Corum & Haynes, 2004; Moore-Johnson & Birkeland, 2003; Tillman, 2005). Likewise, this study’s findings are consistent with previous research that inferred effectual principals used feedback, modeling, guidance, and praise to help promote teacher reflection and success (Blase and Blase, 1999; Tillman, 2005; Watkins, 2005; Wood, 2005). The findings confirmed other recent studies that have addressed new teachers’ concerns. Novice teachers expressed dissatisfaction if principals did not provide feedback, guidance, and personal encouragement (Brock & Grady, 2007; Moore-Johnson & Birkeland, 2003; Tillman, 2005; Youngs, 2007b).

When data were disaggregated by school level (elementary, middle, and high), participants reported similar responses to positive principal support and available resources. No responses were reported for the themes, perception and teacher development. To determine why no responses were received, some assumptions were made. The participants were not prompted to list any instances specific to the principal’s perception of their work, mentoring, or professional development. Given those specific prompts, the participants’ responses may have reflected these themes. Another reason for the lack of responses may be that participants did not connect the principal with perception and teacher development. Novice teachers may not have enough exposure to the school’s culture to understand how the principal’s perceptions may influence the mentoring process, and how school and how teacher leaders’ decisions about professional development affect new teacher growth (Kardos, Johnson, Peske, Kauffman, & Lui, 2006; Tillman, 2005; Wood, 2005).

When the data were disaggregated by school level, middle school participants strongly advocated a need to understand the school culture at a much deeper level. Elementary participants showed no concern, whereas high school participants displayed minimal interest in learning about a school’s culture from the principal.

In terms of expectation, high school participants indicated that principals clearly defined a new teacher’s role and provided adequate supplies and resources to improve instruction. Elementary and middle school participants, however, displayed minimal attention to these subthemes. Last, under the theme professional development, elementary participants did not illuminate further professional development; however, they wanted principals to do more regarding mentoring services. Middle school and high school participants, on the other hand, had no responses for additional mentoring services, but expected the principal to do more in terms of professional development. These findings reiterate current research on novice teacher support and the principal’s involvement in a new teacher’s professional life (Tillman, 2005; Wood, 2005; Youngs, 2007a). They highlight some specific areas that successful principals should address to attend to the needs and aspirations of novice teachers.

Although the results are valuable in understanding key indicators of effective school leadership for new teachers, further questions warrant review and should be considered for study. First, it is important to consider why no positive responses were associated with mentoring or professional development. Typically, this is where the principal connects with the teacher, disseminates information, and provides valuable learning opportunities. Second, research should address the lack of feedback from new teachers about the theme perception. It is important to point out that the survey was conducted at the end of the novice teacher’s first year. Third, in terms of relationships and lack of principal action, it is interesting to note that elementary and middle school teachers were more concerned with communications, whereas the primary focus of high school teachers appeared to rest on teaching assignments and teacher empowerment. Why is this so? Furthermore, perceptions may play a differential role at differing school level. At the elementary level, a teacher may be focused on teaching multiple contents to meet the curricular requirements of a “whole child” approach. Open and collaborative communication may allow new teachers to address the students’ various needs and learning styles. High school teachers, on the other hand, tend to focus on the single subject by providing instruction to a larger student population over the course of a single day. Therefore, being empowered to make decisions regarding their subject area would be a valuable asset in the delivery of instruction. Last, in terms of expectation and lack of principal action, consideration should be given to the question, Why do elementary and high school teachers highlight a need for additional supplies and resources, whereas middle school teachers did not recognize this as a concern?

The existing scholarship reiterates the premise that novice teachers need specific intervention and instructional strategies from principals in order to assimilate effectively into the teaching profession. Effectual principals successfully facilitate the development of beginning teachers by combining support, resources, mentoring, and professional development while unlocking and sharing tacit knowledge of school culture, job roles, and perceptions. The case study provided initial feedback for school leaders with regard to both general supports for the needs of novice teachers and specific supervisory strategies that can be afforded to new teachers at particular grade levels. The results of the case study point out specific areas where novice teachers need assistance and target processes that administrators must to enact to effectively address those needs. Although focusing on any one of the aforementioned needs could benefit a novice teacher’s success, rigorous and thoughtful attention to all four themes and respective subthemes by a highly effective principal are recommended to truly influence novice teacher professional growth and development. This, in turn, produces a greater likelihood of generating considerable positive effects on student achievement.

Although the four themes reinforce the significant responsibilities of an effectual principal to assist novice teachers’ successful enculturation and retention in the teaching profession, gaps warrant further review. The results from the survey further support the notion that intense and purposeful sampling and the use of a comprehensive instrument are required to rigorously examine further the impact of the four themes on novice teachers’ success. Influential principals create an environment that is conducive to novice teachers’ professional growth and development, while concurrently acculturating these individuals into the profession.

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