Stanton (1992) defined an internship as a fixed-term work experience with clear learning objectives. Internships can be full-time or part-time. Part-time internships are more common. Interns commonly perform their duties in the schools in which they teach often during preparation periods or before or after school. The duration of the internship is most often for two sequential semesters. It is typically standards-based. Students are generally visited by their university supervisor two or three times each semester and must submit project plans for approval. The primary source of guidance is the on-site mentor. All too frequently this mentor receives limited training for this important role. More often than not, students are required to maintain a reflective journal. There is wide variation in the number of credit hours awarded (Wilmore & Bratlien, 2005; Williams et al., 2004).

Students routinely complete a variety of tasks during an internship. Cunningham and Sherman (2008) provided evidence that internships have typically centered on tasks such as scheduling, budgeting, student discipline, faculty meetings, home-school communication, laws, policies and procedures, developing reports, school plant concerns, testing, facilitating school community relations, arranging substitutes, and monitoring extracurricular activities. McKerrow’s (1998) study found that the majority of an intern’s time was spent in attending meetings, doing office work, and supervising students. Unfortunately for the intern, these actual experiences run counter to those found in effective programs. Davis, Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, and Meyerson (2005) discovered that effective intern programs are research-based, have curricular coherence, provide experience in authentic contexts, use cohort groupings and mentors, and are structured to enable collaborative activity between the program and area schools. Fortunately, research of effective internship programs has led to leadership education program revisions (Orr, 2006).

As noted previously, research on this subject has traditionally focused on the technical aspects of the internship. This is a narrow and limiting perspective. During an administrative experience, interns discover what they know and what works. They encounter many professional and organizational unknowns (McClam & Puckett, 1991). According to Greenfield (1985), the process by which teachers learn to become administrators is a lengthy one that can begin well before the person commences formal preparation to assume the role and includes formal and informal dimensions. In its initial phase, teachers contemplating a decision to become administrators learn about the role through observations, cues, and feedback. They use this filter to make career decisions (Valerde, 1974). According to White and Crow (1993) an internship is a significant rite of passage that involves “a paradigm shift that is personal, professional, and philosophical.” (p. 12).

Socialization is the process of becoming a member of and identifying with a profession. For teachers it begins when they consider becoming administrators and internalize the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that support professional membership (Hart, 1995; Heck, 1995). Socialization into the ranks of administration is a foundational internship experience (Armstrong, 2010). The socialization process informs the intern of the rites, rituals, and ceremonies that establish parameters for approved administrative behaviors and reinforce organizational roles and structures. Socialization can be formal or informal, not helpful or very helpful, moral as well as technical (Leithwood, Begley, & Cousins, 1992; Greenfield, 1985).

According to Thomas (1980), the path to administration is haphazard and progresses through four definitive stages of socialization: anticipatory, “getting-in”, “settling-in”, and outcomes. Kersten et al., (2009) pointed out that administrative groups use investiture tactics to affirm desired administrative dispositions and behaviors, and divestiture tactics to discourage teaching practices and attitudes that are perceived to be undesirable in administrative roles. According to Crow and Pounders (1996) interns experience a tension between cultures of administration and teaching. Prior to the internship experience, teachers perceived the administrative role through their teacher lenses and the path to administration appeared to be simple and predictable (Armstrong, 2010). White and Crow (1993) found that interns were no longer viewed as expert teachers, but rather as rookie administrators who found themselves immersed in an unknown set of norms and nomenclature.

The process of reflection is an important internship practice. Reflection is a cognitive activity that, when integrated with experience, provides depth and clarity to new knowledge. Schon (1983) stressed the importance of reflection in the workplace. By reflecting on practice, interns evaluate the effectiveness of their actions and acquire problem-solving skills (Williams et al., 2004).

Many researchers who advocate for internships stress the significance of the process of reflection on field experiences. Cordeiro and Smith-Sloan (1995) stated that a well-designed internship, incorporating opportunities for reflection, could enhance the acquisition of leadership skills. They pointed out that theory would impact practice only if there is opportunity for reflection on that practice. When interns hear or tell stories, they learn to diagnose problems, reinterpret experiences and perceptions, fashion an identity crucial to full participation in the practice, and learn to talk (or be silent) like a full practitioner (Williams et al., 2004). Reflection and action is a form of inquiry that can lead to better, fairer decisions (Cordeiro & Smith-Sloan, 1995). McKerrow (1998) warned that the value of the practice of reflection is dependent on the quality of the internship experience.

The U.S. Department of Education’s (2004) Innovative Pathways to School Leadership called for increased fieldwork in leadership preparation programs. Cunningham (2007) described successful internships as those that improve, expand, and deepen the leadership capacity of future educational leaders. A viable internship experience can be the source of new insights, theory-to-practice transitions, and an opportunity to receive feedback and direction regarding effective administrative behaviors (Cunningham & Sherman, 2008).

The procedures and parameters that describe internships and the resultant benefits and limitations have been the topic of extensive research. Studies exist describing intern socialization, dispositions, motivational needs and perceptions of supervision (Hart, 1991; Heck, 1995; Martin, 2009; Johari & Bradshaw, 2008; McClam & Puckett, 1992). The overall impact an internship experience has on an intern has been studied less exhaustively. The research described in this article attempts to expand the understanding of how interns react to this significant field-based experience.

Focus or direction on what the intern wants to accomplish during the internship is one part of the working definition for this theme. This thought process unfolds prior to implementation and is associated with the intern’s recognition that adaptations to the project may need to occur. For example, an intern wrote:

Simultaneously, our research suggests that as the internship unfolds, interns begin reflecting about their future careers and what strategies they would employ to accomplish their goals when they become principals.

Figure 1. Vision for the Internship/Career

The analysis of intern’s responses under this theme resulted in two distinct subcategories. First, during the internship, candidates quickly learned of the need to prioritize, delegate, manage time, organize, and acquire a wide array of skills and a broad knowledge base. Veteran administrators realize early in their careers that good management and good leadership are very different (Ubben, Hughes, & Norris, 2011). The following quote illustrates how one intern wrestled with this challenge:

The second subcategory under this theme pervaded intern voices in every category of this study. Interns continually faced resistance to change at all levels. This simple truth reinforced the need for fostering productive working relationships, and for establishing effective communication. This series of quotes from interns magnifies this point:

It was also common for interns to mention the importance of documentation, adherence to policies, and the use of data. The intern quotes that follow substantiate these perspectives:

The responses in this category reflect a transition from the imagery of an intern’s perception of school administration to becoming immersed in the tasks associated with the position. For many, this is the first factual glimpse of the demands and challenges of building leadership and becomes a valuable learning experience.

The theme of communication is defined as understanding the necessity of effective communication, the pitfalls of miscommunication, or ways of improving communication. Interns routinely cited negative responses centered on their efforts to communicate with their peers and others on whom the success of the project depended. This frustration was prevalent regardless of the form of communication utilized. For example, one intern mentioned only a 14% survey response rate. Others noted inconsistent replies to emails, either delayed or disregarded. The amount of communication required was also a common theme. According to one intern, “I never would have guessed how much . . . communication done over email there actually is.”

This quote typifies one intern’s frustration to the challenges of soliciting responses: “If you ask your teaching staff to do something that could potentially help them out in numerous ways, you would think they would be happy to take 10 minutes to accomplish the task [complete a survey].”

Figure 2. Communication

Interns also discovered that timeliness and encouragement can influence an outcome: “If I had shared a general email to all staff at the onset, highlighting some of the great things that we are doing, I think there would have been a quicker buy-in to professional learning communities.”

As the data in Figure 2 suggest, there were also heartening and rewarding interactions. Interns cited examples of effective communication in their journal entries such as: “Teachers were willing to talk and have conversations about their attitudes . . . .” and “I have noticed that . . . [the principal] makes an attempt to communicate with everyone.” Additional examples of encouraging practices included an acknowledgement that teachers . . . were open and candid and the realization that, “it’s so important to make the personal connections with people whenever possible.”

For the purposes of the study, relationship with faculty is defined by how the intern relates how he or she is collaborating with the school faculty, or in conflict with the faculty. Interns’ responses depicted relationships with faculty during their internship experience as more negative than positive. The most often cited negative responses focused on an organizational culture that impeded the work of the intern. Interns frequently described faculty behaviors that stymied their efforts. The following quotations illustrate these experiences:

Figure 3. Relationship with Faculty

One intern wondered if the lack of student motivation was grounded in low teacher expectations. Another mentioned being shunned by the faculty while completing internship projects. Perhaps related to the changing relationship between the intern and the faculty, the second most often cited hurdle for interns to cross was a faculty’s resistance to change. Interns are required to work with field supervisors, usually administrators in the building where the internship is taking place, to develop projects that add value to the school. An intern wrote, “ [I] was amazed to find out that teachers are unwilling to change.” From another intern, “[It] is not easy to convince teachers that new procedures will work.” This logical reflection was posed by an intern, “One assumption that I had was that when a teacher . . . had a good idea to positively impact students that everyone would agree with it.”

There were also genuinely positive experiences. One intern expressed admiration for a staff that embraced the intern and the changes being implemented. Another stated, “They [teachers] still continue to ask questions and want training to become better.”

The relationship with administration is defined as collaboration (positive tone) or conflict (negative tone) with administration (disagreement/agreement with decision or support/lack of support). This relationship can be between the intern and the school administrator or the faculty and the school administrator.

The relationship with administration received more comments than any other topic. Statistically, interns reported a higher percentage of negative interactions. It is important to mention that these negative experiences were derived from two distinct sources: first, the relationship between the intern and the administrator and second, the relationship between the faculty and the intern. Both sets of experiences focused on matters of leadership.

Figure 4. Relationship with Administration

The relationship between the faculty and the administration is important because it influences the intern’s effectiveness. Interns reported instances where no action was taken when district policies or sections of the negotiated agreement were violated. Another questioned why nothing was being done when instructional time was, at least in the opinion of the intern, being wasted.

Other questioning responses asked why administrators didn’t expect more of teachers, were administrators simply too comfortable in their jobs, and is there too much blame passed on to the district office? One particularly negative experience is portrayed in the following response:

Regarding concerns about direct interactions between the intern and the building administrator, lack of mentoring time was the most frequently cited problem. Others reported not being involved in meetings that might be beneficial. One intern specifically described a lack of administrative support.

While the percentage of responses favored a negative majority in the category, the positive responses are uniquely powerful. Responses frequently documented and complimented an administrator’s hectic schedule, required depth of knowledge, understanding legal and policy parameters, challenges of gaining faculty buy-in, and the hours required to successfully perform in a complex role. The value of a positive intern/mentor relationship cannot be overstated. For example: “I love how the principal lets me experience anything that she is involved in. I feel as though I am getting a really good idea of what elementary administration is like.” One intern in particular noted the gratification of working with the principal and conveyed respect by describing the principal’s enjoyment for attending events and characterizing the role as, “it is just a way of life – more than an job . . .”

The importance of reflection as a process and practice in building leadership capacity was established earlier. Intern reflection was evident in all areas. Significant comments about process, examples of problem-solving, and applications of classroom knowledge were written about and wrestled with. Through this process, interns quickly cited the importance of involving numerous stakeholders when planning and making decisions, the need to delegate, the importance of seeking council, and learning the value of clear and effective communication.

Interns also proposed strategies for dealing with issues such as ineffective parental communication, setting clear expectations, and establishing positive relationships. They remarked about the value of setting deadlines, holding frank conversations, and dealing directly with the source of information. Some interns struggled with time management and warned about making assumptions.

With specific regard to administration, interns frequently mentioned surprise, if not shock, at the challenges facing school administrators. As mentioned previously, examples include the required depth of knowledge, the demands of the role, the skills required to gain support, and finally as one intern remarked, “The leader must be willing to work twice as hard as anyone in the school.”

The major finding in this study was the strength and pervasiveness of the negative tone. Most interns in this study were still serving in teacher roles. The researchers were surprised how often the interns described an oppositional culture. Fiore and Joseph (2005) describe this as the “Us and Them Philosophy.” The challenge for the interns was to attempt to create an “us” situation. This is one in which both parties strive to attain a common goal and will compromise or, if necessary, concede to achieve this goal. Interns’ assumptions also changed regarding their vision and career outlook. This intern’s quote captures the essence of this transformation:

Many interns did not anticipate how difficult it would be to implement change. Armed with projects and data that addressed the school’s academic and operational needs, interns were surprised at the resistance to change from the faculty, their colleagues. In many instances, change would be a direct benefit to students and teachers. Frequently, the source of the proposed changes was derived directly from the school improvement plan, yet resistance was the most often cited reaction.

Early on, interns learned what many seasoned administrators already know, that establishing effective communication is challenging. What reaction is most appropriate when emails are not responded to or when surveys are not completed? This was a new experience for many interns who, because of their professional behavior, did not anticipate this sort of noncompliance. Interns quickly learned that the task of administration is more challenging that it appears.

To capitalize on the results of this study, we must ask ourselves, what internship experiences serve as catalysts for facilitating documentable change in administrative leadership? What factors of the internship experience have a direct and indisputable relationship to becoming a successful building leader? How can aspiring administrators, many not yet in positions of leadership, rise above the minutia of administration and acquire the skills necessary to foster and sustain meaningful and measurable change? The responsibility of university training programs is to find those answers and design internship programs around a shared research-based skill set.

The negative tone conveyed by the results of this research is unacceptable. Casting blame on the organizational culture only serves to perpetuate the status quo. Using the program from which these responses are derived, it is easy to discern the need for more effective training in communication, organizational theory, reducing implementation gaps, and gaining commitment toward school improvement goals. Communication training must be more deliberate and focus on form, timing, intent, and impact. Transferring organizational theory into practice must become an essential disposition so that interns naturally analyze complex problems from a variety of perspectives. Interns possess the knowledge base for dynamic leadership, but lack the savvy to rally key stakeholders around the vision and mission of their schools to better serve students.

For any progress to be made, a breakthrough must soon occur. Today’s environment of accountability places significant demands on novice administrators who are often thrown into roles that would challenge veteran leaders. This fact alone must compel us to strengthen the internship experience.